In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide mobile banking services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's M-PESA
mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile
phone operator Safaricom to hold cash balances which are recorded on
their SIM cards. Cash may be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts
at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country, and may be
transferred electronically from person to person as well as used to pay
bills to companies.
Branchless banking has also been successful in South Africa and Philippines. A pilot project in Bali was launched in 2011 by the International Finance Corporation and an Indonesian bank Bank Mandiri.[50]
Another application of mobile banking technology is Zidisha,
a US-based nonprofit microlending platform that allows residents of
developing countries to raise small business loans from web users
worldwide. Zidisha uses mobile banking for loan disbursements and
repayments, transferring funds from lenders in the United States to the
borrowers in rural Africa using the internet and mobile phones.[51]
Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two
Coca-Cola vending machines in Espoo were enabled to work with SMS
payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999 the Philippines
launched the first commercial mobile payments systems, on the mobile
operators Globe and Smart.
Some mobile phone can make mobile payments via direct mobile billing schemes or through contactless payments if the phone and point of sale support near field communication (NFC).[52]
This requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators and
retail merchants to enable contactless payments through NFC-equipped
mobile phones.
Jumat, 30 November 2012
SIM card
GSM feature phones require a small microchip called a Subscriber Identity Module or SIM Card,
to function. The SIM card is approximately the size of a small postage
stamp and is usually placed underneath the battery in the rear of the
unit. The SIM securely stores the service-subscriber key (IMSI) and the Ki
used to identify and authenticate the user of the mobile phone. The SIM
card allows users to change phones by simply removing the SIM card from
one mobile phone and inserting it into another mobile phone or
broadband telephony device.
The first SIM card was made in 1991 by Munich smart card maker Giesecke & Devrient for the Finnish wireless network operator Radiolinja.
The first SIM card was made in 1991 by Munich smart card maker Giesecke & Devrient for the Finnish wireless network operator Radiolinja.
Rabu, 28 November 2012
UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems
Unix was originally written in assembly language.[5] Ken Thompson wrote B, mainly based on BCPL, based on his experience in the MULTICS project. B was replaced by C,
and Unix, rewriten in C, developed into a large, complex family of
inter-related operating systems which have been influential in every
modern operating system (see History).
The UNIX-like family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories including System V, BSD, and Linux. The name "UNIX" is a trademark of The Open Group which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their definitions. "UNIX-like" is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems which resemble the original UNIX.
Unix-like systems run on a wide variety of computer architectures. They are used heavily for servers in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free UNIX variants, such as Linux and BSD, are popular in these areas.
Four operating systems are certified by the The Open Group (holder of the Unix trademark) as Unix. HP's HP-UX and IBM's AIX are both descendants of the original System V Unix and are designed to run only on their respective vendor's hardware. In contrast, Sun Microsystems's Solaris Operating System can run on multiple types of hardware, including x86 and Sparc servers, and PCs. Apple's Mac OS X, a replacement for Apple's earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS, is a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD.
Unix interoperability was sought by establishing the POSIX standard. The POSIX standard can be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created for various Unix variants.
The UNIX-like family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories including System V, BSD, and Linux. The name "UNIX" is a trademark of The Open Group which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their definitions. "UNIX-like" is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems which resemble the original UNIX.
Unix-like systems run on a wide variety of computer architectures. They are used heavily for servers in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free UNIX variants, such as Linux and BSD, are popular in these areas.
Four operating systems are certified by the The Open Group (holder of the Unix trademark) as Unix. HP's HP-UX and IBM's AIX are both descendants of the original System V Unix and are designed to run only on their respective vendor's hardware. In contrast, Sun Microsystems's Solaris Operating System can run on multiple types of hardware, including x86 and Sparc servers, and PCs. Apple's Mac OS X, a replacement for Apple's earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS, is a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD.
Unix interoperability was sought by establishing the POSIX standard. The POSIX standard can be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created for various Unix variants.
Microcomputers
The first microcomputers
did not have the capacity or need for the elaborate operating systems
that had been developed for mainframes and minis; minimalistic operating
systems were developed, often loaded from ROM and known as monitors. One notable early disk operating system was CP/M, which was supported on many early microcomputers and was closely imitated by Microsoft's MS-DOS, which became wildly popular as the operating system chosen for the IBM PC (IBM's version of it was called IBM DOS or PC DOS). In the '80s, Apple Computer Inc. (now Apple Inc.) abandoned its popular Apple II series of microcomputers to introduce the Apple Macintosh computer with an innovative Graphical User Interface (GUI) to the Mac OS.
The introduction of the Intel 80386 CPU chip with 32-bit architecture and paging capabilities, provided personal computers with the ability to run multitasking operating systems like those of earlier minicomputers and mainframes. Microsoft responded to this progress by hiring Dave Cutler, who had developed the VMS operating system for Digital Equipment Corporation. He would lead the development of the Windows NT operating system, which continues to serve as the basis for Microsoft's operating systems line. Steve Jobs, a co-founder of Apple Inc., started NeXT Computer Inc., which developed the NEXTSTEP operating system. NEXTSTEP would later be acquired by Apple Inc. and used, along with code from FreeBSD as the core of Mac OS X.
The GNU Project was started by activist and programmer Richard Stallman with the goal of creating a complete free software replacement to the proprietary UNIX operating system. While the project was highly successful in duplicating the functionality of various parts of UNIX, development of the GNU Hurd kernel proved to be unproductive. In 1991, Finnish computer science student Linus Torvalds, with cooperation from volunteers collaborating over the Internet, released the first version of the Linux kernel. It was soon merged with the GNU user space components and system software to form a complete operating system. Since then, the combination of the two major components has usually been referred to as simply "Linux" by the software industry, a naming convention that Stallman and the Free Software Foundation remain opposed to, preferring the name GNU/Linux. The Berkeley Software Distribution, known as BSD, is the UNIX derivative distributed by the University of California, Berkeley, starting in the 1970s. Freely distributed and ported to many minicomputers, it eventually also gained a following for use on PCs, mainly as FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD.
The introduction of the Intel 80386 CPU chip with 32-bit architecture and paging capabilities, provided personal computers with the ability to run multitasking operating systems like those of earlier minicomputers and mainframes. Microsoft responded to this progress by hiring Dave Cutler, who had developed the VMS operating system for Digital Equipment Corporation. He would lead the development of the Windows NT operating system, which continues to serve as the basis for Microsoft's operating systems line. Steve Jobs, a co-founder of Apple Inc., started NeXT Computer Inc., which developed the NEXTSTEP operating system. NEXTSTEP would later be acquired by Apple Inc. and used, along with code from FreeBSD as the core of Mac OS X.
The GNU Project was started by activist and programmer Richard Stallman with the goal of creating a complete free software replacement to the proprietary UNIX operating system. While the project was highly successful in duplicating the functionality of various parts of UNIX, development of the GNU Hurd kernel proved to be unproductive. In 1991, Finnish computer science student Linus Torvalds, with cooperation from volunteers collaborating over the Internet, released the first version of the Linux kernel. It was soon merged with the GNU user space components and system software to form a complete operating system. Since then, the combination of the two major components has usually been referred to as simply "Linux" by the software industry, a naming convention that Stallman and the Free Software Foundation remain opposed to, preferring the name GNU/Linux. The Berkeley Software Distribution, known as BSD, is the UNIX derivative distributed by the University of California, Berkeley, starting in the 1970s. Freely distributed and ported to many minicomputers, it eventually also gained a following for use on PCs, mainly as FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD.
Mainframes
Through the 1950s, many major features were pioneered in the field of operating systems, including batch processing, input/output interrupt, buffering, multitasking, spooling, runtime libraries, link-loading, and programs for sorting records
in files. These features were included or not included in application
software at the option of application programmers, rather than in a
separate operating system used by all applications. In 1959 the SHARE Operating System was released as an integrated utility for the IBM 704, and later in the 709 and 7090 mainframes, although it was quickly supplanted by IBSYS/IBJOB on the 709, 7090 and 7094.
During the 1960s, IBM's OS/360 introduced the concept of a single OS spanning an entire product line, which was crucial for the success of the System/360 machines. IBM's current mainframe operating systems are distant descendants of this original system and applications written for OS/360 can still be run on modern machines.[citation needed]
OS/360 also pioneered the concept that the operating system keeps track of all of the system resources that are used, including program and data space allocation in main memory and file space in secondary storage, and file locking during update. When the process is terminated for any reason, all of these resources are re-claimed by the operating system.
The alternative CP-67 system for the S/360-67 started a whole line of IBM operating systems focused on the concept of virtual machines. Other operating systems used on IBM S/360 series mainframes included systems developed by IBM: COS/360 (Compatibility Operating System), DOS/360 (Disk Operating System), TSS/360 (Time Sharing System), TOS/360 (Tape Operating System), BOS/360 (Basic Operating System), and ACP (Airline Control Program), as well as a few non-IBM systems: MTS (Michigan Terminal System), MUSIC (Multi-User System for Interactive Computing), and ORVYL (Stanford Timesharing System).
Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operating system in the 1960s, for batch processing. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the Kronos and later the NOS operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and timesharing use. Like many commercial timesharing systems, its interface was an extension of the Dartmouth BASIC operating systems, one of the pioneering efforts in timesharing and programming languages. In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO operating system, which used plasma panel displays and long-distance time sharing networks. Plato was remarkably innovative for its time, featuring real-time chat, and multi-user graphical games. Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000 in 1961 with the MCP, (Master Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a stack machine designed to exclusively support high-level languages with no machine language or assembler, and indeed the MCP was the first OS to be written exclusively in a high-level language – ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL. MCP also introduced many other ground-breaking innovations, such as being the first commercial implementation of virtual memory. During development of the AS400, IBM made an approach to Burroughs to licence MCP to run on the AS400 hardware. This proposal was declined by Burroughs management to protect its existing hardware production. MCP is still in use today in the Unisys ClearPath/MCP line of computers.
UNIVAC, the first commercial computer manufacturer, produced a series of EXEC operating systems. Like all early main-frame systems, this was a batch-oriented system that managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line printers. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real-Time Basic (RTB) system to support large-scale time sharing, also patterned after the Dartmouth BC system.
General Electric and MIT developed General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS), which introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels. After acquisition by Honeywell it was renamed to General Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS).
Digital Equipment Corporation developed many operating systems for its various computer lines, including TOPS-10 and TOPS-20 time sharing systems for the 36-bit PDP-10 class systems. Prior to the widespread use of UNIX, TOPS-10 was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early ARPANET community.
In the late 1960s through the late 1970s, several hardware capabilities evolved that allowed similar or ported software to run on more than one system. Early systems had utilized microprogramming to implement features on their systems in order to permit different underlying computer architectures to appear to be the same as others in a series. In fact most 360s after the 360/40 (except the 360/165 and 360/168) were microprogrammed implementations. But soon other means of achieving application compatibility were proven to be more significant.
The enormous investment in software for these systems made since 1960s caused most of the original computer manufacturers to continue to develop compatible operating systems along with the hardware. The notable supported mainframe operating systems include:
During the 1960s, IBM's OS/360 introduced the concept of a single OS spanning an entire product line, which was crucial for the success of the System/360 machines. IBM's current mainframe operating systems are distant descendants of this original system and applications written for OS/360 can still be run on modern machines.[citation needed]
OS/360 also pioneered the concept that the operating system keeps track of all of the system resources that are used, including program and data space allocation in main memory and file space in secondary storage, and file locking during update. When the process is terminated for any reason, all of these resources are re-claimed by the operating system.
The alternative CP-67 system for the S/360-67 started a whole line of IBM operating systems focused on the concept of virtual machines. Other operating systems used on IBM S/360 series mainframes included systems developed by IBM: COS/360 (Compatibility Operating System), DOS/360 (Disk Operating System), TSS/360 (Time Sharing System), TOS/360 (Tape Operating System), BOS/360 (Basic Operating System), and ACP (Airline Control Program), as well as a few non-IBM systems: MTS (Michigan Terminal System), MUSIC (Multi-User System for Interactive Computing), and ORVYL (Stanford Timesharing System).
Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operating system in the 1960s, for batch processing. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the Kronos and later the NOS operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and timesharing use. Like many commercial timesharing systems, its interface was an extension of the Dartmouth BASIC operating systems, one of the pioneering efforts in timesharing and programming languages. In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO operating system, which used plasma panel displays and long-distance time sharing networks. Plato was remarkably innovative for its time, featuring real-time chat, and multi-user graphical games. Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000 in 1961 with the MCP, (Master Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a stack machine designed to exclusively support high-level languages with no machine language or assembler, and indeed the MCP was the first OS to be written exclusively in a high-level language – ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL. MCP also introduced many other ground-breaking innovations, such as being the first commercial implementation of virtual memory. During development of the AS400, IBM made an approach to Burroughs to licence MCP to run on the AS400 hardware. This proposal was declined by Burroughs management to protect its existing hardware production. MCP is still in use today in the Unisys ClearPath/MCP line of computers.
UNIVAC, the first commercial computer manufacturer, produced a series of EXEC operating systems. Like all early main-frame systems, this was a batch-oriented system that managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line printers. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real-Time Basic (RTB) system to support large-scale time sharing, also patterned after the Dartmouth BC system.
General Electric and MIT developed General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS), which introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels. After acquisition by Honeywell it was renamed to General Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS).
Digital Equipment Corporation developed many operating systems for its various computer lines, including TOPS-10 and TOPS-20 time sharing systems for the 36-bit PDP-10 class systems. Prior to the widespread use of UNIX, TOPS-10 was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early ARPANET community.
In the late 1960s through the late 1970s, several hardware capabilities evolved that allowed similar or ported software to run on more than one system. Early systems had utilized microprogramming to implement features on their systems in order to permit different underlying computer architectures to appear to be the same as others in a series. In fact most 360s after the 360/40 (except the 360/165 and 360/168) were microprogrammed implementations. But soon other means of achieving application compatibility were proven to be more significant.
The enormous investment in software for these systems made since 1960s caused most of the original computer manufacturers to continue to develop compatible operating systems along with the hardware. The notable supported mainframe operating systems include:
- Burroughs MCP – B5000, 1961 to Unisys Clearpath/MCP, present.
- IBM OS/360 – IBM System/360, 1966 to IBM z/OS, present.
- IBM CP-67 – IBM System/360, 1967 to IBM z/VM, present.
- UNIVAC EXEC 8 – UNIVAC 1108, 1967, to OS 2200 Unisys Clearpath Dorado, present.
History
Early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a
calculator. Operating systems did not exist in their modern and more
complex forms until the early 1960s.[4] Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor
functions that could automatically run different programs in succession
to speed up processing. Hardware features were added that enabled use
of runtime libraries, interrupts, and parallel processing. When personal computers became popular in the 1980s, operating system were made for them similar in concept to those used on larger computers.
In the 1940s, the earliest electronic digital systems had no operating systems. Electronic systems of this time were programmed on rows of mechanical switches or by jumper wires on plug boards. These were special-purpose systems that, for example, generated ballistics tables for the military or controlled the printing of payroll checks from data on punched paper cards. After programmable general purpose computers were invented, machine languages (consisting of strings of the binary digits 0 and 1 on punched paper tape) were introduced that sped up the programming process (Stern, 1981).
In the 1940s, the earliest electronic digital systems had no operating systems. Electronic systems of this time were programmed on rows of mechanical switches or by jumper wires on plug boards. These were special-purpose systems that, for example, generated ballistics tables for the military or controlled the printing of payroll checks from data on punched paper cards. After programmable general purpose computers were invented, machine languages (consisting of strings of the binary digits 0 and 1 on punched paper tape) were introduced that sped up the programming process (Stern, 1981).
Adobe Dreamweaver
Adobe Dreamweaver (formerly Macromedia Dreamweaver) is a proprietary web development application originally created by Macromedia. It is now developed by Adobe Systems, which acquired Macromedia in 2005.[1] Adobe Dreamweaver is available for both Mac and Windows operating systems. Following Adobe's acquisition of the Macromedia product suite, releases of Dreamweaver subsequent to version 8.0 have been more compliant with W3C standards. Recent versions have improved support for web technologies such as CSS, JavaScript, and various server-side scripting languages and frameworks including ASP (ASP JavaScript, ASP VBScript, ASP.NET C#, ASP.NET VB), ColdFusion, Scriptlet, and PHP.[2]
Selasa, 27 November 2012
CDR file format
CDR file format is a proprietary file format
developed by Corel Corporation and primarily used for vector graphic
drawings. There is no publicly available CDR file format specification.[30][31]
Other CorelDRAW file formats include CorelDRAW Compressed (CDX), CorelDRAW Template (CDT)[29] and Corel Presentation Exchange (CMX).[32]
In December 2006 the sK1 open source project team started to reverse-engineer the CDR format.[33] The results and the first working snapshot of the CDR importer were presented at the Libre Graphics Meeting 2007 conference taking place in May 2007 in Montreal (Canada).[34] Later on the team parsed the structure of other Corel formats with the help of the open source CDR Explorer.[35] As of 2008, the sK1 project claims to have the best import support for CorelDRAW file formats among open source software programs. The sK1 project developed also the UniConvertor, a command line open source tool which supports conversion from CorelDRAW ver.7-X4 formats (CDR/CDT/CCX/CDRX/CMX) to other formats. UniConvertor is also used in Inkscape and Scribus open source projects as an external tool for CorelDRAW files importing.[36][37][38]
In 2007, Microsoft blocked CDR file format in Microsoft Office 2003 with the release of Service Pack 3 for Office 2003.[39][40] Microsoft later apologized for inaccurately blaming the CDR file format and other formats for security problems in Microsoft Office and released some tools for solving this problem.[41]
In 2012 the joint LibreOffice/re-lab team implemented libcdr, a library for reading CDR files from v1 to the currently latest X6 version and CMX files.[42] The library has extensive support for shapes and their properties, including support for color management and spot colors, and has a basic support for text.[43] The library provides a built-in converter to SVG, and a converter to OpenDocument is provided by writerperfect package. The libcdr library is expected to be used in LibreOffice 3.6[44], and thanks to public API it can be freely used by other applications.
Other CorelDRAW file formats include CorelDRAW Compressed (CDX), CorelDRAW Template (CDT)[29] and Corel Presentation Exchange (CMX).[32]
In December 2006 the sK1 open source project team started to reverse-engineer the CDR format.[33] The results and the first working snapshot of the CDR importer were presented at the Libre Graphics Meeting 2007 conference taking place in May 2007 in Montreal (Canada).[34] Later on the team parsed the structure of other Corel formats with the help of the open source CDR Explorer.[35] As of 2008, the sK1 project claims to have the best import support for CorelDRAW file formats among open source software programs. The sK1 project developed also the UniConvertor, a command line open source tool which supports conversion from CorelDRAW ver.7-X4 formats (CDR/CDT/CCX/CDRX/CMX) to other formats. UniConvertor is also used in Inkscape and Scribus open source projects as an external tool for CorelDRAW files importing.[36][37][38]
In 2007, Microsoft blocked CDR file format in Microsoft Office 2003 with the release of Service Pack 3 for Office 2003.[39][40] Microsoft later apologized for inaccurately blaming the CDR file format and other formats for security problems in Microsoft Office and released some tools for solving this problem.[41]
In 2012 the joint LibreOffice/re-lab team implemented libcdr, a library for reading CDR files from v1 to the currently latest X6 version and CMX files.[42] The library has extensive support for shapes and their properties, including support for color management and spot colors, and has a basic support for text.[43] The library provides a built-in converter to SVG, and a converter to OpenDocument is provided by writerperfect package. The libcdr library is expected to be used in LibreOffice 3.6[44], and thanks to public API it can be freely used by other applications.
Macromedia
Macromedia – amerykańska firma software'owa z siedzibą w San
Francisco, tworząca oprogramowanie do tworzenia grafiki i budowy witryn
internetowych.
Firma powstała w 1992 r., z połączenia Authorware, Inc. (twórców pakietu Authorware) i MacroMind-Paracomp (producenta Macromind Director). W 1999 r. Macromedia zakupiła firmę Allaire i jej biznesowe oprogramowanie sieciowe, w tym edytor HomeSite. W 2003 zakupiono eHelp Corporation, produkującą oprogramowanie do tworzenia systemów pomocy, jak RoboHelp, RoboDemo (obecnie Captivate) i RoboInfo.
Firma powstała w 1992 r., z połączenia Authorware, Inc. (twórców pakietu Authorware) i MacroMind-Paracomp (producenta Macromind Director). W 1999 r. Macromedia zakupiła firmę Allaire i jej biznesowe oprogramowanie sieciowe, w tym edytor HomeSite. W 2003 zakupiono eHelp Corporation, produkującą oprogramowanie do tworzenia systemów pomocy, jak RoboHelp, RoboDemo (obecnie Captivate) i RoboInfo.
Senin, 26 November 2012
CS5
Photoshop CS5 was launched on 12 April 2010.[48] In a video posted on its official Facebook
page, the development team revealed the new technologies under
development, including three-dimensional brushes and warping tools.[49]
In May 2011, Adobe Creative Suite 5.5 (CS5.5) was released, with new versions of some of the applications. Its version of Photoshop, 12.1, is identical to the concurrently released update for Photoshop CS5, version 12.0.4, except for support for the new subscription pricing that was introduced with CS5.5.[50]
CS5 introduces new tools such as the Content-Aware Fill, Refine Edge, Mixer Brush, Bristle Tips and Puppet Warp.[51] The community also had a hand in the additions made to CS5 as 30 new features and improvements were included by request.[51] These include automatic image straightening, the Rule-of-Thirds cropping tool, color pickup and saving an 16-bit image as a JPEG.[51] Another feature includes the Adobe Mini Bridge which allows for efficient file browsing and management.[51]
CS5 Extended includes everything in CS5 plus features in 3D and video editing. A new materials library was added, providing more options such as Chrome, Glass, and Cork.[51] The new Shadow Catcher tool can be used to further enhance 3D objects.[51] For motion graphics, the tools can be applied to over more than one frame in a video sequence.[51]
CS5 and CS5 Extended were made available through Adobe's online store, Adobe Authorized Resellers and Adobe direct sales.[51] Both CS5 and CS5 Extended are offered as either a stand-alone application or feature of Adobe Creative Suite 5.[51] The price for CS5 is US$699 and the extended version is US$999.[51] Both products are compatible with Intel-based Mac OS and Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7.[52]
In May 2011, Adobe Creative Suite 5.5 (CS5.5) was released, with new versions of some of the applications. Its version of Photoshop, 12.1, is identical to the concurrently released update for Photoshop CS5, version 12.0.4, except for support for the new subscription pricing that was introduced with CS5.5.[50]
CS5 introduces new tools such as the Content-Aware Fill, Refine Edge, Mixer Brush, Bristle Tips and Puppet Warp.[51] The community also had a hand in the additions made to CS5 as 30 new features and improvements were included by request.[51] These include automatic image straightening, the Rule-of-Thirds cropping tool, color pickup and saving an 16-bit image as a JPEG.[51] Another feature includes the Adobe Mini Bridge which allows for efficient file browsing and management.[51]
CS5 Extended includes everything in CS5 plus features in 3D and video editing. A new materials library was added, providing more options such as Chrome, Glass, and Cork.[51] The new Shadow Catcher tool can be used to further enhance 3D objects.[51] For motion graphics, the tools can be applied to over more than one frame in a video sequence.[51]
CS5 and CS5 Extended were made available through Adobe's online store, Adobe Authorized Resellers and Adobe direct sales.[51] Both CS5 and CS5 Extended are offered as either a stand-alone application or feature of Adobe Creative Suite 5.[51] The price for CS5 is US$699 and the extended version is US$999.[51] Both products are compatible with Intel-based Mac OS and Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7.[52]
CS4
CS4 features smoother panning and zooming, allowing faster image
editing at a high magnification. The interface is more simplified with
its tab-based interface[44]
making it cleaner to work with. Photoshop CS4 features a new 3D engine
allowing the conversion of gradient maps to 3D objects, adding depth to
layers and text, and getting print-quality output with the new
ray-tracing rendering engine. It supports common 3D formats; the new
Adjustment and Mask Panels; Content-aware scaling (seam carving[45]); Fluid Canvas Rotation and File display options.[46] The Content-aware scaling allows users to intelligently size and scale images,[44] and the Canvas Rotation tool makes it easier to rotate and edit images from any angle.[44]
Adobe released Photoshop CS4 Extended, which has the features of Adobe Photoshop CS4, plus capabilities for scientific imaging, 3D, motion graphics,[44] accurate image analysis[44] and high-end film and video users. The faster 3D engine allows users to paint directly on 3D models, wrap 2D images around 3D shapes and animate 3D objects.[44] As the successor to Photoshop CS3, Photoshop CS4 is the first x64 edition of Photoshop on consumer computers for Windows.[47] The color correction tool has also been improved significantly.[44]
CS4 and CS4 Extended were released on 15 October 2008.[44] They were also made available through Adobe’s online store and Adobe Authorized Resellers.[44] Both CS4 and CS4 Extended are offered as either a stand-alone application or feature of Adobe Creative Suite. The price for CS4 is US$699 and the extended version is US$999.[44] Both products are compatible with Intel-based Mac OS X and PowerPCs, supporting Windows XP and Windows Vista.[44]
Adobe released Photoshop CS4 Extended, which has the features of Adobe Photoshop CS4, plus capabilities for scientific imaging, 3D, motion graphics,[44] accurate image analysis[44] and high-end film and video users. The faster 3D engine allows users to paint directly on 3D models, wrap 2D images around 3D shapes and animate 3D objects.[44] As the successor to Photoshop CS3, Photoshop CS4 is the first x64 edition of Photoshop on consumer computers for Windows.[47] The color correction tool has also been improved significantly.[44]
CS4 and CS4 Extended were released on 15 October 2008.[44] They were also made available through Adobe’s online store and Adobe Authorized Resellers.[44] Both CS4 and CS4 Extended are offered as either a stand-alone application or feature of Adobe Creative Suite. The price for CS4 is US$699 and the extended version is US$999.[44] Both products are compatible with Intel-based Mac OS X and PowerPCs, supporting Windows XP and Windows Vista.[44]
CS3
CS3 improves on features from previous versions of Photoshop and
introduces new tools. One of the most significant is the streamline
interface which allows increased performance, speed, and efficiency.
There is also improved support for Camera RAW
files which allow users to process images with higher speed and
conversion quality. CS3 supports over 150 RAW formats as well as JPEG, TIFF and PDF.[40]
Enhancements were made to the Black and White Conversion, Brightness
and Contrast Adjustment and Vanishing Point Module tools. The Black and
White adjustment option improves control over manual grayscale
conversions with a dialog box similar to that of Channel Mixer. There is
more control over print options and better management with Adobe Bridge. The Clone Source palette is introduced, adding more options to the clone stamp tool.[41] Other features include the nondestructive Smart Filters, optimizing graphics for mobile devices,[41] Fill Light and Dust Busting tools.[40] Compositing is assisted with Photoshop's new Quick Selection and Refine Edge tools and improved image stitching technology.[42]
CS3 Extended includes everything in CS3 and additional features. There are tools for 3D graphic file formats, video enhancement and animation, and comprehensive image measurement and analysis tools with DICOM file support.[43] The 3D graphic formats allow 3D content to be incorporated into 2D compositions.[40] As for video editing, CS3 supports layers and video formatting so users can edit video files per frame.[40]
CS3 and CS3 Extended were released in April 2007 to the United States and Canada.[40] They were also made available through Adobe’s online store and Adobe Authorized Resellers.[40] Both CS3 and CS3 Extended are offered as either a stand-alone application or feature of Adobe Creative Suite.[40] The price for CS3 is US$649 and the extended version is US$999.[40] Both products are compatible with Intel-based Macs and PowerPCs, supporting Windows XP and Windows Vista.[40]
CS3 Extended includes everything in CS3 and additional features. There are tools for 3D graphic file formats, video enhancement and animation, and comprehensive image measurement and analysis tools with DICOM file support.[43] The 3D graphic formats allow 3D content to be incorporated into 2D compositions.[40] As for video editing, CS3 supports layers and video formatting so users can edit video files per frame.[40]
CS3 and CS3 Extended were released in April 2007 to the United States and Canada.[40] They were also made available through Adobe’s online store and Adobe Authorized Resellers.[40] Both CS3 and CS3 Extended are offered as either a stand-alone application or feature of Adobe Creative Suite.[40] The price for CS3 is US$649 and the extended version is US$999.[40] Both products are compatible with Intel-based Macs and PowerPCs, supporting Windows XP and Windows Vista.[40]
CS2
Photoshop CS2, released in May 2005, expanded on its predecessor with a new set of tools and features.[39]
One of whichs included an upgraded Spot Healing Brush, which is mainly
used for handling common photographic problems such as blemishes,
red-eye, noise, blurring and lens distortion.[39]
One of the most significant inclusions in CS2 was the implementation of
Smart Objects, which allows users to scale and transform images and
vector illustrations without losing image quality as well as create
linked duplicates of embedded graphics so that a single edit updates
across multiple iterations.[39]
Adobe had also responded to feedback from the professional media industry by implementing non-destructive editing as well as the producing and modifying of 32-Bit High Dynamic Range (HDR) images, which are optimal for 3D rendering and advanced compositing. FireWire Previews could also be viewed on a monitor via a direct export feature.[39]
Photoshop CS2 also brought the Vanishing Point and Image Warping tools.[39] Vanishing Point makes tedious graphic and photo retouching endeavors much simpler by letting users to clone, paint and transform image objects while maintaining visual perspective.[39] Image Warping makes it easy digitally distort an image into a shape by choosing on-demand presets or by dragging control points.[39]
The File Browser had been upgraded to Adobe Bridge, which functioned as a hub for productivity, imagery and creativity, providing multi-view file browsing and smooth cross-product integration across Adobe Creative Suite 2 software.[39] Adobe Bridge also provides access to Adobe Stock Photos, a new stock photography service that offers users one-stop shopping across five elite stock image providers to deliver high-quality, royalty-free images for layout and design (see separate press release).
Camera Raw version 3.0 was also a new addition to CS2, and it allowed settings for multiple raw files to be modified simultaneously.[39] In addition, processing multiple raw files, to other formats including JPEG, TIFF, DNG or PSD, could be done in the background without executing the Photoshop itself.[39]
Photoshop CS2 also brought a streamlined interface, making it easier to access features for specific instances. In CS2 users were also given the ability to create their own custom presets, which was meant to save time and increase productivity.[39]
Adobe had also responded to feedback from the professional media industry by implementing non-destructive editing as well as the producing and modifying of 32-Bit High Dynamic Range (HDR) images, which are optimal for 3D rendering and advanced compositing. FireWire Previews could also be viewed on a monitor via a direct export feature.[39]
Photoshop CS2 also brought the Vanishing Point and Image Warping tools.[39] Vanishing Point makes tedious graphic and photo retouching endeavors much simpler by letting users to clone, paint and transform image objects while maintaining visual perspective.[39] Image Warping makes it easy digitally distort an image into a shape by choosing on-demand presets or by dragging control points.[39]
The File Browser had been upgraded to Adobe Bridge, which functioned as a hub for productivity, imagery and creativity, providing multi-view file browsing and smooth cross-product integration across Adobe Creative Suite 2 software.[39] Adobe Bridge also provides access to Adobe Stock Photos, a new stock photography service that offers users one-stop shopping across five elite stock image providers to deliver high-quality, royalty-free images for layout and design (see separate press release).
Camera Raw version 3.0 was also a new addition to CS2, and it allowed settings for multiple raw files to be modified simultaneously.[39] In addition, processing multiple raw files, to other formats including JPEG, TIFF, DNG or PSD, could be done in the background without executing the Photoshop itself.[39]
Photoshop CS2 also brought a streamlined interface, making it easier to access features for specific instances. In CS2 users were also given the ability to create their own custom presets, which was meant to save time and increase productivity.[39]
CS1
The first Photoshop CS was commercially released in October 2003.[38]
Photoshop CS increased user control with a reworked file browser
augmenting search versatility, sorting and sharing capabilities and the
Histogram Palette which monitors changes in the image as they are made
to the document.[38] Match Color was also introduced in CS, which reads color data to achieve a uniform expression throughout a series of pictures.[38]
Photoshop CS integrated Camera Raw version 2.0 functionality, which enabled direct manipulation of raw media in an greater set of professional-grade digital cameras.[38]
With the implementation of Layer Comps, it was easier to quickly capture design variants in a single file, then create alternates for clients to review.[38]
Eye-catching typographic designs were possible thank to the new ability to manipulate fully editable text on any path or inside any closed path.[38] Photoshop CS enabled photographers to work more closely with raw media from even more digital cameras and included extensive editing support for 16-bit color images.[38] Color levels across images could be synchronized effortlessly with the new Match Color and Shadow/Highlight features, to cure exposure problems while maintaining mid-tones.[38]
Photoshop CS is a tool that helps design sequences for videos and films by removing the guesswork for film and video professionals.[38] The non-square pixels, typically found in videos, have been a reoccurring challenge when trying to accurately create imagery to display on screens since computer-generated graphics tend to appear distorted.[38] With non-square pixel support in Photoshop CS, videographers could see the image as it would appear on the destination device.[38] The 16-bit support in Photoshop CS preserves the rich color palette of film and the product is closely integrated with Adobe's industry-leading video editing applications: Adobe Premiere Pro, Adobe Encore DVD and Adobe After Effects.[38]
Photoshop CS integrated Camera Raw version 2.0 functionality, which enabled direct manipulation of raw media in an greater set of professional-grade digital cameras.[38]
With the implementation of Layer Comps, it was easier to quickly capture design variants in a single file, then create alternates for clients to review.[38]
Eye-catching typographic designs were possible thank to the new ability to manipulate fully editable text on any path or inside any closed path.[38] Photoshop CS enabled photographers to work more closely with raw media from even more digital cameras and included extensive editing support for 16-bit color images.[38] Color levels across images could be synchronized effortlessly with the new Match Color and Shadow/Highlight features, to cure exposure problems while maintaining mid-tones.[38]
Photoshop CS is a tool that helps design sequences for videos and films by removing the guesswork for film and video professionals.[38] The non-square pixels, typically found in videos, have been a reoccurring challenge when trying to accurately create imagery to display on screens since computer-generated graphics tend to appear distorted.[38] With non-square pixel support in Photoshop CS, videographers could see the image as it would appear on the destination device.[38] The 16-bit support in Photoshop CS preserves the rich color palette of film and the product is closely integrated with Adobe's industry-leading video editing applications: Adobe Premiere Pro, Adobe Encore DVD and Adobe After Effects.[38]
Drawing
Photoshop includes a few versions of the pen tool. The pen tool creates precise paths that can be manipulated using anchor points.[25] The freeform pen tool allows the user to draw paths freehand, and with the magnetic pen tool, the drawn path attaches closely to outlines of objects in an image, which is useful for isolating them from a background.[29]
The eyedropper tool selects a color from an area of the image that is clicked, and samples it for future use.[25] The hand tool navigates an image by moving it in any direction, and the zoom tool enlarges the part of an image that is clicked on, allowing for a closer view.[25]
Selection
The marquee tool can make selections that are single row, single column, rectangular and elliptical.[25] Once an area of an image is highlighted, the move tool can be used to manually relocate the selected piece to anywhere on the canvas.[25] The lasso tool is similar to the marquee tool, however, the user can make a custom selection by drawing it freehand. In addition, the lasso tool can make magnetic and polygonal selections.[25]Typing
Photoshop also provides tools for adding and editing text. The type tools create an area where text can be entered, and the type mask tools create a selection area that has the shape of text.[25] The type tool creates vector-based text, so symbols, letters and numbers in various fonts and colors can be re-sized while maintaining the same resolution.[30]Retouching
There are several tools that are used for retouching, manipulating and adjusting photos, such as the clone stamp, eraser, burn, dodge, smudge and blur tools.[25] The clone stamp tool samples a selected portion of an image, and duplicates it over another area using a brush that can be adjusted in size, flow and opacity.[25] The smudge tool, when dragged across part of an image, stretches and smudges pixels as if they are real paint, and the blur tool softens portions of an image by lowering the amount of detail within the adjusted area.[31] The eraser tool removes pixels from an image, and the magic eraser tool selects areas of solid color and erases them.[25] The burn and dodge tools, which are derived from traditional methods of adjusting the exposure on printed photos, have opposite effects; the burn tool darkens selected areas, and the dodge tool lightens them.[31]Content-aware
Content-awareness is a useful aspect of Photoshop where image editing is done automatically and intelligently. It comes in two forms, content-aware scaling, and content-aware filling, in which elements in a background automatically recompose according to the areas a user of the program decides to fill or scale. More specifically, content-aware scaling works by rescaling an image and causing its content to adapt to the new dimensions and preserving important areas of it. Content-aware filling functions by matching tone, color, and noise of an area of the image that contained an object or detail in which the user decides to remove.[32]Healing Tools
With improvement retouching tools like the Clone Stamp tool and Healing Brush tool, imperfections of an image can easily be removed. These tools essentially function by locating a source point (or multiple source points) that can be scaled or rotated in order to cover an imperfection or unwanted detail in a specific area of an image.[32]Puppet Warp
Similar to the content-aware tool, the puppet warp tool reveals Photoshop’s intelligence by allowing a user to reposition an object in an image such as a flower or arm. This is done by using points that outline the structure of an object and easily repositioning in the wanted orientation.[32]Video Editing
In Adobe CS5 Extended edition, video editing is comprehensive and efficient with a broad compatibility of video file formats such as MOV, AVI, FLC, MPEG-4, and FLV formats and easy workflow. Using simple combination of keys video layers can easily be modified, with other features such as adding text and the creation of animations using single images.[33]3D
With the Extended version of Photoshop CS5, 2D elements of an artwork can easily become three-dimensional with the click of a button. Extrusions of texts, an available library of materials for three-dimensional, and even wrapping two-dimensional images around 3D geometry are all possible with this version of Photoshop. Realism can also be added to an image using the 3D features of Photoshop such as animating image-based lights and depth of field.[33]Mobile Integration
Third-party plugins have also been added to the most recent version of Photoshop where technologies such as the iPad have integrated the software with different types of applications. Applications like the Adobe Eazel painting app allows the user to easily create paintings with their fingertips and use an array of different paint from dry to wet in order to create rich color blending.[32]Camera Raw
With the Camera Raw plug-in, RAW images can be processed without the use of Adobe Photoshop Lightroom, along with other image file formats such as JPEGs, TIFFs, or PNGs. The plug-in allows users to remove noise without the side-effect of over-sharpening, add grain, and even perform post-crop vignetting.[33]Minggu, 25 November 2012
Plugins
Photoshop functionality can be extended by add-on programs called Photoshop plugins
(or plug-ins). Adobe creates some plugins, such as Adobe Camera Raw,
but third-party companies develop most plugins, according to Adobe's
specifications. Some are free and some are commercial software. Most
plugins work with only Photoshop or Photoshop-compatible hosts, but a
few can also be run as standalone applications.
There are various types of plugins, such as filter, export, import, selection, and automation. The most popular plugins are the filter plugins (also known as a 8bf plugins), available under the Filter menu in Photoshop. Filter plugins can either modify the current image or create content. Below are some popular types of plugins, and some well-known companies associated with them:
There are various types of plugins, such as filter, export, import, selection, and automation. The most popular plugins are the filter plugins (also known as a 8bf plugins), available under the Filter menu in Photoshop. Filter plugins can either modify the current image or create content. Below are some popular types of plugins, and some well-known companies associated with them:
- Color correction plugins (Alien Skin Software,[14] Nik Software,[15] OnOne Software,[16] Topaz Labs Software,[17] The Plugin Site,[18] etc.)
- Special effects plugins (Alien Skin Software, Auto FX Software,[19] AV Bros.,[20] Flaming Pear Software,[21] etc.)
- 3D effects plugins (Andromeda Software,[22] Strata,[23] etc.)
File format
Photoshop files have default file extension as .PSD, which
stands for "Photoshop Document." A PSD file stores an image with support
for most imaging options available in Photoshop. These include layers
with masks, color spaces, ICC profiles, CMYK Mode (used for commercial printing), transparency, text, alpha channels and spot colors, clipping paths, and duotone
settings. This is in contrast to many other file formats (e.g. .JPG or
.GIF) that restrict content to provide streamlined, predictable
functionality. A PSD file has a maximum height and width of 30,000
pixels, and a length limit of 2 Gigabytes.
Photoshop files sometimes have the file extension .PSB, which stands for "Photoshop Big" (also known as "large document format"). A PSB file extends the PSD file format, increasing the maximum height and width to 300,000 pixels and the length limit to around 4 Exabytes. The dimension limit was apparently chosen arbitrarily by Adobe, not based on computer arithmetic constraints (it is not close to a power of two, as is 30,000) but for ease of software testing. PSD and PSB formats are documented.[12]
Because of Photoshop's popularity, PSD files are widely used and supported to some extent by most competing software. The .PSD file format can be exported to and from Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Premiere Pro, and After Effects, to make professional standard DVDs and provide non-linear editing and special effects services, such as backgrounds, textures, and so on, for television, film, and the web. Photoshop's primary strength is as a pixel-based image editor, unlike vector-based image editors. Photoshop also enables the creation, incorporation, and manipulation of vector graphics through its Paths, Pen tools, Shape tools, Shape Layers, Type tools, Import command, and Smart object functions. These tools and commands are convenient to combine pixel-based and vector-based images in one Photoshop document, because it may not be necessary to use more than one program. To create very complex vector graphics with numerous shapes and colors, it may be easier to use software that was created primarily for that purpose, such as Adobe Illustrator, CorelDRAW or Xara Designer Pro. To import the complex vector object into Photoshop, it can be imported as a Smart Object. Double-click on Photoshop's layers palette to open the object in its original software, such as Adobe Illustrator. Changes can be made. When saving, Photoshop will update the Smart Object.
Photoshop files sometimes have the file extension .PSB, which stands for "Photoshop Big" (also known as "large document format"). A PSB file extends the PSD file format, increasing the maximum height and width to 300,000 pixels and the length limit to around 4 Exabytes. The dimension limit was apparently chosen arbitrarily by Adobe, not based on computer arithmetic constraints (it is not close to a power of two, as is 30,000) but for ease of software testing. PSD and PSB formats are documented.[12]
Because of Photoshop's popularity, PSD files are widely used and supported to some extent by most competing software. The .PSD file format can be exported to and from Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Premiere Pro, and After Effects, to make professional standard DVDs and provide non-linear editing and special effects services, such as backgrounds, textures, and so on, for television, film, and the web. Photoshop's primary strength is as a pixel-based image editor, unlike vector-based image editors. Photoshop also enables the creation, incorporation, and manipulation of vector graphics through its Paths, Pen tools, Shape tools, Shape Layers, Type tools, Import command, and Smart object functions. These tools and commands are convenient to combine pixel-based and vector-based images in one Photoshop document, because it may not be necessary to use more than one program. To create very complex vector graphics with numerous shapes and colors, it may be easier to use software that was created primarily for that purpose, such as Adobe Illustrator, CorelDRAW or Xara Designer Pro. To import the complex vector object into Photoshop, it can be imported as a Smart Object. Double-click on Photoshop's layers palette to open the object in its original software, such as Adobe Illustrator. Changes can be made. When saving, Photoshop will update the Smart Object.
Early history
In 1987, Thomas Knoll, a PhD student at the University of Michigan began writing a program on his Macintosh Plus to display grayscale images on a monochrome display. This program, called Display, caught the attention of his brother John Knoll, an Industrial Light & Magic
employee, who recommended that Thomas turn it into a full-fledged image
editing program. Thomas took a six-month break from his studies in 1988
to collaborate with his brother on the program. Thomas renamed the
program ImagePro, but the name was already taken.[9]
Later that year, Thomas renamed his program Photoshop and worked out a
short-term deal with scanner manufacturer Barneyscan to distribute
copies of the program with a slide scanner; a "total of about 200 copies of Photoshop were shipped" this way.[10]
During this time, John traveled to Silicon Valley and gave a demonstration of the program to engineers at Apple and Russell Brown, art director at Adobe. Both showings were successful, and Adobe decided to purchase the license to distribute in September 1988.[9] While John worked on plug-ins in California, Thomas remained in Ann Arbor writing code. Photoshop 1.0 was released in 1990 for Macintosh exclusively.[
During this time, John traveled to Silicon Valley and gave a demonstration of the program to engineers at Apple and Russell Brown, art director at Adobe. Both showings were successful, and Adobe decided to purchase the license to distribute in September 1988.[9] While John worked on plug-ins in California, Thomas remained in Ann Arbor writing code. Photoshop 1.0 was released in 1990 for Macintosh exclusively.[
Adobe Photoshop
Adobe Photoshop is a graphics editing program developed and published by Adobe Systems.
Adobe's 2003 "Creative Suite" rebranding led to Adobe Photoshop 8's renaming to Adobe Photoshop CS. Thus, Adobe Photoshop CS6 is the 13th major release of Adobe Photoshop. The CS rebranding also resulted in Adobe offering numerous software packages containing multiple Adobe programs for a reduced price. Adobe Photoshop is released in two editions: Adobe Photoshop, and Adobe Photoshop Extended, with the Extended having extra 3D image creation, motion graphics editing, and advanced image analysis features.[5] Adobe Photoshop Extended is included in all of Adobe's Creative Suite offerings except Design Standard, which includes the Adobe Photoshop edition.
Alongside Photoshop and Photoshop Extended, Adobe also publishes Photoshop Elements and Photoshop Lightroom, collectively called "The Adobe Photoshop Family". In 2008, Adobe released Adobe Photoshop Express, a free web-based image editing tool to edit photos directly on blogs and social networking sites; in 2011 a version was released for the Android operating system and the iOS operating system.[6][7]
Adobe only supports Windows and Macintosh versions of Photoshop, but using Wine, Photoshop CS5 can run reasonably well on GNU/Linux.[8]
Adobe's 2003 "Creative Suite" rebranding led to Adobe Photoshop 8's renaming to Adobe Photoshop CS. Thus, Adobe Photoshop CS6 is the 13th major release of Adobe Photoshop. The CS rebranding also resulted in Adobe offering numerous software packages containing multiple Adobe programs for a reduced price. Adobe Photoshop is released in two editions: Adobe Photoshop, and Adobe Photoshop Extended, with the Extended having extra 3D image creation, motion graphics editing, and advanced image analysis features.[5] Adobe Photoshop Extended is included in all of Adobe's Creative Suite offerings except Design Standard, which includes the Adobe Photoshop edition.
Alongside Photoshop and Photoshop Extended, Adobe also publishes Photoshop Elements and Photoshop Lightroom, collectively called "The Adobe Photoshop Family". In 2008, Adobe released Adobe Photoshop Express, a free web-based image editing tool to edit photos directly on blogs and social networking sites; in 2011 a version was released for the Android operating system and the iOS operating system.[6][7]
Adobe only supports Windows and Macintosh versions of Photoshop, but using Wine, Photoshop CS5 can run reasonably well on GNU/Linux.[8]
Jumat, 23 November 2012
Leninism and Marxism-Leninism
Leninism is the political movement developed by Vladimir Lenin,
which has become the foundation for the organizational structure of
most major communist parties. Leninists advocate the creation of a
vanguard party led by dedicated revolutionaries in order to lead the
working class revolution to victory. Leninists believe that socialism
will not arise spontaneously through the natural decay of capitalism and
that workers are unable to organize and develop socialist consciousness
without the guidance of the Vanguard party. After taking power,
Vanguard parties seek to create a socialist state continually led by the
Vanguard party in order to direct social development and defend against
counterrevolutionary insurrection. The mode of industrial organization
championed by Leninism and Marxism-Leninism is the capitalist model of
scientific management pioneered by Fredrick Taylor.[citation needed]
Marxism-Leninism is a version of Leninism merged with classical Marxism adopted by the Soviet Union and most communist parties across the world today. It shaped the Soviet Union and influenced communist parties worldwide. It was heralded as a possibility of building communism via a massive program of industrialization and collectivisation. Despite the fall of the Soviet Union and the 'Eastern Bloc' (meaning communist countries of Eastern and Central Europe), many communist parties of the world today still lay claim to uphold the Marxist-Leninist banner. Marxism-Leninism expands on Marxist thoughts by bringing the theories to what Lenin and other Communists considered, the age of capitalist imperialism, and a renewed focus on party building, the development of a socialist state, and democratic centralism as an organisational principle.
Lenin's pamphlet What is to be Done? (1902), proposed that the (urban) proletariat can successfully achieve revolutionary consciousness only under the leadership of a vanguard party of professional revolutionaries—who can achieve aims only with internal democratic centralism in the party; tactical and ideological policy decisions are agreed via democracy, and every member must support and promote the agreed party policy.
To wit, capitalism can be overthrown only with revolution—because attempts to reform capitalism from within (Fabianism) and from without (social democracy) will fail because of its inherent contradictions. The purpose of a Leninist revolutionary vanguard party is the forceful deposition of the incumbent government; assume power (as agent of the proletariat) and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat. Moreover, as the government, the vanguard party must educate the proletariat—to dispel the societal false consciousness of religion and nationalism that are culturally instilled by the bourgeoisie in facilitating exploitation, and to instil the material scientific outlook of the world and the sense of proletarian internationalism. The dictatorship of the proletariat is governed with a de-centralized direct democracy practised via soviets (councils) where the workers exercise political power (cf. soviet democracy); the fifth chapter of State & Revolution, describes it:
The hallmarks of Marxism-Leninism are: the revolutionary vanguard party, revolution as a means to overthrow capitalism, and democratic centralism.
Marxism-Leninism is a version of Leninism merged with classical Marxism adopted by the Soviet Union and most communist parties across the world today. It shaped the Soviet Union and influenced communist parties worldwide. It was heralded as a possibility of building communism via a massive program of industrialization and collectivisation. Despite the fall of the Soviet Union and the 'Eastern Bloc' (meaning communist countries of Eastern and Central Europe), many communist parties of the world today still lay claim to uphold the Marxist-Leninist banner. Marxism-Leninism expands on Marxist thoughts by bringing the theories to what Lenin and other Communists considered, the age of capitalist imperialism, and a renewed focus on party building, the development of a socialist state, and democratic centralism as an organisational principle.
Lenin's pamphlet What is to be Done? (1902), proposed that the (urban) proletariat can successfully achieve revolutionary consciousness only under the leadership of a vanguard party of professional revolutionaries—who can achieve aims only with internal democratic centralism in the party; tactical and ideological policy decisions are agreed via democracy, and every member must support and promote the agreed party policy.
To wit, capitalism can be overthrown only with revolution—because attempts to reform capitalism from within (Fabianism) and from without (social democracy) will fail because of its inherent contradictions. The purpose of a Leninist revolutionary vanguard party is the forceful deposition of the incumbent government; assume power (as agent of the proletariat) and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat. Moreover, as the government, the vanguard party must educate the proletariat—to dispel the societal false consciousness of religion and nationalism that are culturally instilled by the bourgeoisie in facilitating exploitation, and to instil the material scientific outlook of the world and the sense of proletarian internationalism. The dictatorship of the proletariat is governed with a de-centralized direct democracy practised via soviets (councils) where the workers exercise political power (cf. soviet democracy); the fifth chapter of State & Revolution, describes it:
The post-revolutionary Bolshevik government was hostile to nationalism, especially to Russian nationalism, the "Great Russian chauvinism", which was seen as an obstacle to establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat.[34] However, under the regime of Joseph Stalin, during the Great Patriotic War, Russian nationalism brought back into favour.[35]".... the dictatorship of the proletariat—i.e. the organisation of the vanguard of the oppressed as the ruling class for the purpose of crushing the oppressors. . . . An immense expansion of democracy, which for the first time becomes democracy for the poor, democracy for the people, and not democracy for the rich: . . . and suppression by force, i.e. exclusion from democracy, for the exploiters and oppressors of the people—this is the change which democracy undergoes during the transition from capitalism to communism."—[33]
The hallmarks of Marxism-Leninism are: the revolutionary vanguard party, revolution as a means to overthrow capitalism, and democratic centralism.
Marxism
Like other socialists, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
sought an end to capitalism and the systems which they perceived to be
responsible for the exploitation of workers. Whereas earlier socialists
often favored longer-term social reform, Marx and Engels believed that popular revolution was all but inevitable, and the only path to socialism and communism.
According to the Marxist argument for communism, the main characteristic of human life in class society is alienation; and communism is desirable because it entails the full realization of human freedom.[26] Marx here follows Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel in conceiving freedom not merely as an absence of restraints but as action with content.[27] According to Marx, communism's outlook on freedom was based on an agent, obstacle, and goal. The agent is the common/working people; the obstacles are class divisions, economic inequalities, unequal life-chances, and false consciousness; and the goal is the fulfilment of human needs including satisfying work, and fair share of the product.[28][29]
They believed that communism allowed people to do what they want, but also put humans in such conditions and such relations with one another that they would not wish to exploit, or have any need to. Whereas for Hegel the unfolding of this ethical life in history is mainly driven by the realm of ideas, for Marx, communism emerged from material forces, particularly the development of the means of production.[27]
Marxism holds that a process of class conflict and revolutionary struggle will result in victory for the proletariat and the establishment of a communist society in which private property and ownership is abolished over time and the means of production and subsistence belong to the community. (Private property and ownership, in this context, means ownerships of the means of production, not private possessions).[30] Marx himself wrote little about life under communism, giving only the most general indication as to what constituted a communist society. It is clear that it entails abundance in which there is little limit to the projects that humans may undertake.[citation needed] In the popular slogan that was adopted by the communist movement, communism was a world in which each gave according to their abilities, and received according to their needs. The German Ideology (1845) was one of Marx's few writings to elaborate on the communist future:
In the late 19th century, the terms "socialism" and "communism" were often used interchangeably. However, Marx and Engels argued that communism would not emerge from capitalism in a fully developed state, but would pass through a "first phase" in which most productive property was owned in common, but with some class differences remaining. The "first phase" would eventually evolve into a "higher phase" in which class differences were eliminated, and a state was no longer needed. Lenin frequently used the term "socialism" to refer to Marx and Engels' supposed "first phase" of communism and used the term "communism" interchangeably with Marx and Engels' "higher phase" of communism.[32]
These later aspects, particularly as developed by Vladimir Lenin, provided the underpinning for the mobilizing features of 20th century communist parties.
According to the Marxist argument for communism, the main characteristic of human life in class society is alienation; and communism is desirable because it entails the full realization of human freedom.[26] Marx here follows Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel in conceiving freedom not merely as an absence of restraints but as action with content.[27] According to Marx, communism's outlook on freedom was based on an agent, obstacle, and goal. The agent is the common/working people; the obstacles are class divisions, economic inequalities, unequal life-chances, and false consciousness; and the goal is the fulfilment of human needs including satisfying work, and fair share of the product.[28][29]
They believed that communism allowed people to do what they want, but also put humans in such conditions and such relations with one another that they would not wish to exploit, or have any need to. Whereas for Hegel the unfolding of this ethical life in history is mainly driven by the realm of ideas, for Marx, communism emerged from material forces, particularly the development of the means of production.[27]
Marxism holds that a process of class conflict and revolutionary struggle will result in victory for the proletariat and the establishment of a communist society in which private property and ownership is abolished over time and the means of production and subsistence belong to the community. (Private property and ownership, in this context, means ownerships of the means of production, not private possessions).[30] Marx himself wrote little about life under communism, giving only the most general indication as to what constituted a communist society. It is clear that it entails abundance in which there is little limit to the projects that humans may undertake.[citation needed] In the popular slogan that was adopted by the communist movement, communism was a world in which each gave according to their abilities, and received according to their needs. The German Ideology (1845) was one of Marx's few writings to elaborate on the communist future:
Marx's lasting vision was to add this vision to a theory of how society was moving in a law-governed way towards communism, and, with some tension, a political theory that explained why revolutionary activity was required to bring it about.[27]"In communist society, where nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity but each can become accomplished in any branch he wishes, society regulates the general production and thus makes it possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticise after dinner, just as I have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, herdsman or critic."—[31]
In the late 19th century, the terms "socialism" and "communism" were often used interchangeably. However, Marx and Engels argued that communism would not emerge from capitalism in a fully developed state, but would pass through a "first phase" in which most productive property was owned in common, but with some class differences remaining. The "first phase" would eventually evolve into a "higher phase" in which class differences were eliminated, and a state was no longer needed. Lenin frequently used the term "socialism" to refer to Marx and Engels' supposed "first phase" of communism and used the term "communism" interchangeably with Marx and Engels' "higher phase" of communism.[32]
These later aspects, particularly as developed by Vladimir Lenin, provided the underpinning for the mobilizing features of 20th century communist parties.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union
In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union and relaxed central control, in accordance with reform policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring). The Soviet Union did not intervene as Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary all abandoned Communist rule by 1990. In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved.
By the beginning of the 21st century, states controlled by communist parties under a single-party system include the People's Republic of China, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam, and North Korea. Communist parties, or their descendant parties, remain politically important in a number of other countries. President Dimitris Christofias of Cyprus is a member of the Progressive Party of Working People, but the country is not run under single-party rule. The South African Communist Party is a partner in the African National Congress-led government. In India, communists lead the governments of three states, with a combined population of more than 115 million. In Nepal, communists hold a majority in the parliament.[24] The Communist Party of Brazil is a part of the parliamentary coalition led by the ruling democratic socialist Workers' Party and is represented in the executive cabinet of Dilma Rousseff.
By the beginning of the 21st century, states controlled by communist parties under a single-party system include the People's Republic of China, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam, and North Korea. Communist parties, or their descendant parties, remain politically important in a number of other countries. President Dimitris Christofias of Cyprus is a member of the Progressive Party of Working People, but the country is not run under single-party rule. The South African Communist Party is a partner in the African National Congress-led government. In India, communists lead the governments of three states, with a combined population of more than 115 million. In Nepal, communists hold a majority in the parliament.[24] The Communist Party of Brazil is a part of the parliamentary coalition led by the ruling democratic socialist Workers' Party and is represented in the executive cabinet of Dilma Rousseff.
Kamis, 22 November 2012
Cold War
Its leading role in the Second World War
saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong
influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. At the same time the
existing European empires were shattered and Communist parties played a
leading role in many independence movements.
Governments modelled on Soviet Communism took power with Soviet assistance in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland, Hungary and Romania. A Communist government was also created under Marshal Tito in Yugoslavia, but Tito's independent policies led to the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the Cominform, which had replaced the Comintern. Titoism, a new branch in the world Communist movement, was labelled "deviationist". Albania also became an independent Communist nation after World War II.[21]
By 1950, the Chinese Communists held all of Mainland China, thus controlling the most populous nation in the world. Other areas where rising Communist strength provoked dissension and in some cases led to actual fighting through conventional and guerrilla warfare include the Korean War, Laos, many nations of the Middle East and Africa, and notably succeeded in the case of the Vietnam War against the military power of the United States and its allies. With varying degrees of success, Communists attempted to unite with nationalist and socialist forces against what they saw as Western imperialism in these poor countries.
A 1947 propaganda book published by the Catechetical Guild Educational Society warning of the dangers of a communist revolution.
Communism was seen as a rival, and a threat to western democracies and capitalism for most of the 20th century.[22] This rivalry peaked during the Cold War,
as the world's two remaining superpowers, the United States and the
Soviet Union, polarized most of the world into two camps of nations.
This was characterized in the West as The Free World vs. Behind the Iron Curtain.[citation needed]
It supported the spread of their respective economic and political
systems (capitalism and communism) and strengthened their military
powers. As a result, the camps developed new weapon systems, stockpiled nuclear weapons, and competed in space exploration.
Near the beginning of the Cold War, on February 9, 1950, Senator Joseph McCarthy from Wisconsin accused 205 Americans working in the State Department of being "card-carrying communists".[23] The fear of communism in the U.S. spurred McCarthyism, aggressive investigations and the red-baiting, blacklisting, jailing and deportation of persons suspected of following communist or other left-wing ideologies. Many famous actors and writers were placed on a blacklist from 1950 to 1954, which meant they would not be hired and would be subject to public disdain.
Governments modelled on Soviet Communism took power with Soviet assistance in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland, Hungary and Romania. A Communist government was also created under Marshal Tito in Yugoslavia, but Tito's independent policies led to the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the Cominform, which had replaced the Comintern. Titoism, a new branch in the world Communist movement, was labelled "deviationist". Albania also became an independent Communist nation after World War II.[21]
By 1950, the Chinese Communists held all of Mainland China, thus controlling the most populous nation in the world. Other areas where rising Communist strength provoked dissension and in some cases led to actual fighting through conventional and guerrilla warfare include the Korean War, Laos, many nations of the Middle East and Africa, and notably succeeded in the case of the Vietnam War against the military power of the United States and its allies. With varying degrees of success, Communists attempted to unite with nationalist and socialist forces against what they saw as Western imperialism in these poor countries.
Near the beginning of the Cold War, on February 9, 1950, Senator Joseph McCarthy from Wisconsin accused 205 Americans working in the State Department of being "card-carrying communists".[23] The fear of communism in the U.S. spurred McCarthyism, aggressive investigations and the red-baiting, blacklisting, jailing and deportation of persons suspected of following communist or other left-wing ideologies. Many famous actors and writers were placed on a blacklist from 1950 to 1954, which meant they would not be hired and would be subject to public disdain.
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